Abstract
PURPOSE: Early puberty timing is associated with altered neurodevelopment and adverse mental health. Its association with cognitive functioning remains unclear. We investigated the effects of puberty timing on various cognitive abilities. METHODS: In 10,174 participants from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, we assessed associations between puberty timing at baseline (age 9.9±0.6 years) and performance on six cognitive tasks at baseline, 2-year, and 4-year follow-ups. Linear-mixed-regression models were calculated separately by sex, adjusting for bodyweight, birthweight, parental income, and race/ethnicity. To probe causal relationships, we performed Mendelian randomization utilizing external Genome Wide Association Study (GWAS) data on age at menarche (N=632,955), male puberty timing (N=205,354), and executive functioning (N=427,037). RESULTS: In the ABCD study, earlier puberty timing was associated with poorer performance pooled across timepoints on the NIH Toolbox® Picture Sequence Memory Task (girls: standardized β=-0.04, 95%-CI [-0.06, -0.01]; boys: β=-0.03, 95%-CI [-0.05, -0.01]), the List Sorting Working Memory Test (girls: β=-0.03, 95%-CI [-0.06, -0.01]; boys: β=-0.04, 95%-CI [-0.06, -0.01]), and both the learning of a word list (girls: β=-0.05, 95%-CI [-0.07, -0.02]; boys: β=-0.04, 95%-CI [-0.06, -0.01]) and its recall (girls: β=-0.03, 95%-CI [-0.06, -0.01]; boys: β=-0.03, 95%-CI [-0.06, -0.01]). Mendelian randomization indicated better executive functioning with later age at menarche (b=0.005/year, 95%-CI [0.000, 0.011]); the association with male puberty timing was directionally consistent but remained non-significant (b=0.012/year, 95%-CI [-0.004, 0.028]). DISCUSSION: These findings support a causal link between earlier puberty timing and poorer cognitive performance. However, effect sizes were small, indicating negligible clinical relevance.