Abstract
This study investigated the cognitive development of elementary school children by identifying significant factors within a social-ecological framework. By studying the association between social-ecological factors and children's cognitive development, we identified the most significant factors that are linked to children's cognitive outcomes. We used the 5th wave (9 years old) of the U.S. Fragile Family and Child Wellbeing Study. With a sample size of 1,722, we conducted multiple regression analyses to examine the relationship between individual, family, and school/community levels and children's verbal skills (PPVT-III), reading comprehension (WJ-PC), digit span, and math problems (WJ-AP). We found that the school neighborhood was associated with verbal skills, math skills, and reading comprehension; mothers' educational levels were significantly associated with verbal skills, digit span, and reading comprehension; and children's race/ethnicity was associated with verbal skills. To enhance students' cognitive development, policymakers and educators should prioritize the quality of schools and their learning environment. Creating a supportive and optimistic learning environment is crucial for all students, especially those dealing with obstacles such as poverty, family instability, and troubled schools. Providing parenting education may be helpful for parents with limited education levels.