Abstract
Carbohydrates dynamically and transiently interact with proteins for cell-cell recognition, cellular differentiation, immune response, and many other cellular processes. Despite the molecular importance of these interactions, there are currently few reliable computational tools to predict potential carbohydrate-binding sites on any given protein. Here, we present two deep learning (DL) models named CArbohydrate-Protein interaction Site IdentiFier (CAPSIF) that predicts non-covalent carbohydrate-binding sites on proteins: (1) a 3D-UNet voxel-based neural network model (CAPSIF:V) and (2) an equivariant graph neural network model (CAPSIF:G). While both models outperform previous surrogate methods used for carbohydrate-binding site prediction, CAPSIF:V performs better than CAPSIF:G, achieving test Dice scores of 0.597 and 0.543 and test set Matthews correlation coefficients (MCCs) of 0.599 and 0.538, respectively. We further tested CAPSIF:V on AlphaFold2-predicted protein structures. CAPSIF:V performed equivalently on both experimentally determined structures and AlphaFold2-predicted structures. Finally, we demonstrate how CAPSIF models can be used in conjunction with local glycan-docking protocols, such as GlycanDock, to predict bound protein-carbohydrate structures.