Abstract
Neonicotinoids (NEOs) are neurotoxic pesticides widely used in agriculture due to their high effectiveness against pest insects. Despite their widespread use, very little is known about their toxicity towards marine organisms, including sensitive and ecologically relevant taxa such as copepods. Thus, we investigated the toxicity of five widely used NEOs, including acetamiprid (ACE), clothianidin (CLO), imidacloprid (IMI), thiacloprid (THI), and thiamethoxam (TMX), to assess their ability to inhibit the larval development of the copepod Acartia tonsa. The more toxic NEOs were ACE (EC(50) = 0.73 μg L(-1)), TMX (EC(50) = 1.71 μg L(-1)) and CLO (EC(50) = 1.90 μg L(-1)), while the less toxic compound was IMI (EC(50) = 8.84 μg L(-1)). Early life-stage mortality was unaffected by NEOs at all of the tested concentrations. The calculated toxicity data indicated that significant effects due to ACE (EC(20) = 0.12 μg L(-1)), THI (EC(20) = 0.88 μg L(-1)) and TMX (EC(20) = 0.18 μg L(-1)) are observed at concentrations lower than established chronic aquatic life benchmarks reported by USEPA for freshwater invertebrates. Nevertheless, since environmental concentrations of NEOs are generally lower than the threshold concentrations we calculated for A. tonsa, the effects may be currently of concern only in estuaries receiving wastewater discharges or experiencing intense runoff from agriculture.