Abstract
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2/NRF2) is a critical mediator of the cellular oxidative stress response. Aberrant activation of NRF2 is common in lung and upper aerodigestive cancers, where it promotes tumor initiation and progression and confers resistance to chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immune checkpoint inhibitors. As such, NRF2 therapeutic inhibitors are actively being sought. We previously reported that the antiparasitic drug Pyrimethamine (PYR) inhibits NRF2 in cell lines and in a NRF2-inducible genetically engineered mouse model. Here we design, synthesize, and define structure-activity relationships across a series of 25 PYR-based derivatives to reveal WCDD115 as a 22-fold more potent inhibitor of NRF2 (57nM versus 1.2μM). PYR is known to inhibit plasmodial and human dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). We found that WCDD115 inhibits hDHFR with 31-fold greater potency than PYR (144nM versus 4.49μM). Metabolomics showed strong similarities between PYR, WCDD115 and methotrexate. Genetic, pharmacological and metabolic epistasis studies reveal that DHFR inactivation is required for NRF2 suppression by WCDD115 and PYR. Global and targeted proteomics revealed overlapping profiles for WCDD115, PYR and methotrexate, including suppression of NRF2 oxidative stress response and activation of TP53 and the DNA damage response. Therefore, PYR and a novel potent derivative WCDD115 are effective, indirect inhibitors of NRF2 and its antioxidant functions. These data underscore the importance of one-carbon metabolism for the NRF2 signaling pathway and support a new therapeutic strategy to suppress NRF2-driven cancer biology.