Abstract
Only a small number of avian species inhabit salty environments. To understand how they adapted, we examined the evolution of kidney sizes, supraorbital salt glands (SSGs), and the utilization of salty habitats across 230 species spanning 25 avian orders. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that SSGs, large kidneys, and thriving in salty habitats emerged convergently in birds. Transition rate analysis reveals that species possessing SSGs and large kidneys tended to move from low-to high-salinity environments, while others moved in the opposite direction. However, habitat salinity also influenced kidney evolution; lineages residing in high-salinity environments tended to develop larger kidneys than those in low-salinity environments. Our findings suggest that SSGs and large kidneys may have evolved through adaptation to high salinity. Overall, habitat conditions and physiological traits influenced avian adaptation to salty environments in a reciprocal manner. These results shed the new light on the evolutionary mechanisms underlying functional diversity in birds.