Abstract
INTRODUCTION: The binding of the spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a critical stage in the process of infection. While previous studies indicated that the S protein and ACE2 are extensively glycosylated, the functions of glycans in their interactions remain uncertain. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the glycan receptors of SARS-CoV-2 and evaluate the inhibitory effects of galactosylated glycoproteins derived from bovine milk on the attachment of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus. METHODS: An antibody-overlay lectin microarray was used to profile the glycopatterns of the S protein-S1 of SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2. Molecular dynamics simulation was used to mimic the interaction between the S protein and ACE2. The effects of N-glycans and β1-4 galactosylation on the interactions between SARS-CoV-2, its variations (B1.617.2 (Delta) and B1.1.529 (Omicron)), and ACE2 was assessed using molecular docking simulation and protein microarrays. The impact of glycoproteins (specifically sialylated glycoproteins or de-sialylated glycoproteins) derived from bovine milk on the interaction between S1 and ACE2, as well as on pseudoviral attachment and entry, was assessed using protein microarrays and pseudovirus-based microneutralization assays. RESULTS: Our findings indicated that the galactosylated glycoforms were the most prevalent for both S1 and ACE2. Importantly, we demonstrated that the β1-4 galactosylated N-glycans of ACE2 played a crucial role in the binding of S1 of SARS-CoV-2 and its variations to ACE2. The glycoproteins derived from bovine milk had a large amount of galactosylated glycans, which are comparable to the glycoforms of ACE2. The glycoproteins effectively blocked the attachment and entry of the SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus by competitively blocking the binding of S1 to ACE2. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrated that the β1-4 galactosylated N-glycans of ACE2 play a crucial role as glycan receptors for the binding of S1 of SARS-CoV-2 and its variations. Moreover, the glycoproteins with 'receptor-like' glycoforms could be an effective inhibitor to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection.