Abstract
Sex determination mechanisms evolve surprisingly rapidly, yet little is known in the large nematode phylum other than for Caenorhabditis elegans, which relies on chromosomal XX-XO sex determination and a dosage compensation mechanism. Here we analyze by sex-specific genome sequencing and genetic analysis sex determination in two fungal feeding/plant-parasitic Bursaphelenchus nematodes and find that their sex differentiation is more likely triggered by random, epigenetic regulation than by more well-known mechanisms of chromosomal or environmental sex determination. There is no detectable difference in male and female chromosomes, nor any linkage to sexual phenotype. Moreover, the protein sets of these nematodes lack genes involved in X chromosome dosage counting or compensation. By contrast, our genetic screen for sex differentiation mutants identifies a Bursaphelenchus ortholog of tra-1, the major output of the C. elegans sex determination cascade. Nematode sex determination pathways might have evolved by "bottom-up" accretion from the most downstream regulator, tra-1.