Abstract
In this study, the effect of sodium hypochlorite (10-200 ppm of Cl(2)) on the inactivation of human norovirus (HuNV) GII.4 and hepatitis A virus (HAV) in groundwater was investigated using propidium monoazide (PMA)/reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Initially, 4.00 log(10) genome copies/μL of HuNV GII.4 or 5.50 log(10) genome copies/μL of HAV were artificially inoculated in groundwater. The titers of HuNV GII.4 and HAV decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with increasing Cl(2) concentrations. Groundwater was treated with 10, 30, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm of Cl(2), and the viable HuNV GII.4 was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced to 3.28 (0.21-log reduction), 3.18 (0.31-log reduction), 3.01 (0.48 log reduction), 2.75 (0.74 log reduction), 2.54 (0.95 log reduction), and 2.34 (1.15 log reduction) log(10) genome copies/μL, respectively. The viable HAV was also significantly (P < 0.05) reduced to 4.99 (0.23 log reduction), 4.76 (0.46 log reduction), 4.55 (0.67 log reduction), 4.21 (1.01-log reduction), 3.89 (1.33 log reduction), and 3.64 (1.58 log reduction) log(10) genome copies/μL, respectively. The decimal reduction times (D values) (1-log(10) genome reduction) of HuNV GII.4 and HAV infectivity in groundwater were predicted as 116.7 and 98.9 ppm of Cl(2), respectively, using the first-order kinetics model (HuNV GII.4: y = -0.0054x + 3.3585, correlation coefficient (R(2)) = 0.97; HAV: y = -0.0091x + 5.0470, R(2) = 0.97). The result specifically suggests that 150- to 200-ppm Cl(2) can potentially be used for the inactivation of >1-log(10) genome copy/μL HuNV GII.4 and HAV in groundwater.IMPORTANCEGroundwater represents a vital component of the global water supply, serving as a crucial source of potable water for humans. It serves as a source of potable water for up to 50% of the global population and accounts for 43% of all water used for irrigation. It thus follows that the sustainable management of groundwater represents a pivotal solution. However, the regrowth of pathogens in water that is not treated with chlorine or where proper residual chlorine is not maintained represents a risk to public health.