Abstract
Dominance hierarchies are ubiquitous in social species and serve to organize social systems. Social and sexual status is communicated directly among animals via sensory systems evolved in the particular species. Such signals may be chemical, visual, auditory, postural or a combination of signals. In most species, status is initially established through physical conflict between individuals that leads to ritualized conflict or threats, reducing possibly dangerous results of fighting. Many of the status signals contain other information, as in some bird species that communicate both the size of their group and their individual rank vocally. Recent studies have shown that scent signaling among hyenas of east Africa is unique, being produced by fermentative, odor producing bacteria residing in the scent glands.