Abstract
Hopping kangaroos exhibit remarkably little change in their rate of metabolic energy expenditure with locomotor speed compared to other running animals. This phenomenon may be related to greater elastic energy savings due to increasing tendon stress; however, the mechanisms which enable the rise in stress without additional muscle work remain poorly understood. In this study, we created a three-dimensional (3D) kangaroo musculoskeletal model, integrating 3D motion capture and force plate data, to analyse the kinematics and kinetics of hopping red and grey kangaroos. Using our model, we evaluated how body mass and speed influence (i) hindlimb posture, (ii) effective mechanical advantage (EMA), (iii) the associated tendon stress in the ankle extensors, and (iv) ankle work during hopping. We found that increasing ankle dorsiflexion and metatarsophalangeal plantarflexion likely played an important role in decreasing ankle EMA by altering both the muscle and external moment arms, which subsequently increased energy absorption and peak tendon stress at the ankle. Surprisingly, kangaroo hindlimb posture changes appeared to contribute to increased tendon stress, allowing more elastic energy storage at faster speeds. These posture-mediated increases in elastic energy storage and return could be a key factor enabling kangaroos to achieve energetic benefits at faster hopping speeds, but may limit the performance of large kangaroos due to the risk of tendon rupture.