Abstract
BACKGROUND: The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) is the world's highest and largest plateau, but the role of its uplift in the evolution of species or biotas still remains poorly known. Toad-headed lizards of the reproductively bimodal genus Phrynocephalus are a clade of agamids, with all viviparous species restricted to the QTP and adjacent regions. The eastern part of the range of the viviparous taxa is occupied by three closely related but taxonomically controversial species, P. guinanensis, P. putjatia and P. vlangalii. Here, we combined genetic (mitochondrial ND4 gene and nine microsatellite loci), morphological (11 mensural and 11 meristic variables), and ecological (nine climatic variables) data to explore possible scenarios that may explain the discordance between genetic and morphological patterns, and to test whether morphological divergence is associated with local adaptation. RESULTS: We found weak genetic differentiation but pronounced morphological divergence, especially between P. guinanensis and P. vlangalii. Genetically, the species boundary was not so clear between any species pair. Morphologically, the species boundary was clear between P. guinanensis and P. vlangalii but not between other two species pairs. Body size and scale characters accounted best for morphological divergence between species. Morphological divergence was related to habitat types that differ climatically. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides evidence for genetic and morphological divergence among the three closely related viviparous species of Phrynocephalus lizards, and supports the idea that natural selection in spatially heterogeneous environments can lead to population divergence even in the presence of gene flow. Our study supports the hypothesis that the evolutionary divergence between viviparous Phrynocephalus species was a consequence of environmental change after the uplift of the QTP.