Abstract
Short arginine-rich proteins called protamines mediate the near crystalline DNA packaging in most vertebrate sperm cells. Protamines are synthesized during spermiogenesis and condense the paternal genome into a transcriptionally inactive state in late-stage spermatids. Protamines from eutherian mammals, including bulls and humans, also contain multiple cysteine residues that form intra- and interprotamine sulfur-sulfur bonds during the final stages of sperm maturation. Although the cross-linked protamine network is known to stabilize the resulting nucleoprotamine structure, little is known about the role of disulfide bonds on DNA condensation in the mammalian sperm. Using small angle x-ray scattering, we show that isolated bull nuclei achieve slightly lower DNA packing densities compared to salmon nuclei despite salmon protamine lacking cysteine residues. Surprisingly, reduction of the intermolecular sulfur-sulfur bonds of bull protamine results in tighter DNA packing. Complete reduction of the intraprotamine disulfide bonds ultimately leads to decondensation, suggesting that disulfide-mediated secondary structure is also critical for proper protamine function. Lastly, comparison of multiple bull collections showed some to have aberrant x-ray scattering profiles consistent with incorrect disulfide bond formation. Together, these observations shed light on the biological functions of disulfide linkages for in vivo DNA packaging in sperm chromatin.