Abstract
Urban street trees can affect air pollutant concentrations by reducing ventilation rates in polluted street canyons (increasing concentrations), or by providing surface area for deposition (decreasing concentrations). This paper examines these effects in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, using mobile measurements of nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), particulate matter (PM), black carbon (BC), and ultrafine particulate matter (UFP). The effect of trees is accounted for in regulatory dispersion models (https://www.cimlk.nl) by the application of an empirically determined tree factor, dependent on the existence and density of the tree canopy, to concentrations due to traffic emissions. Here, we examine the effect of street trees on different pollutants using street-level mobile measurements in a detailed case study (repeated measurements of several neighboring streets) and a larger statistical analysis of measurements across the urban core of Rotterdam. We find that in the summertime, when trees are fully leafed-out, the major short-lived traffic-related pollutants of NO(2) and BC have higher concentrations in streets with higher traffic and greater tree cover, while PM(2.5) has slightly lower concentrations in streets with higher tree factor. UFP shows a less clear, but decreasing trend with tree factor. In low-traffic streets and in wintertime (fewer leaves on trees) measurements confirm the importance of leaves to pollutant trapping by trees, by finding no enhancement of NO(2) and BC with increasing tree cover, rather a slightly decreasing trend in pollutant concentrations with tree factor. Our observations are consistent with the dominant effect of (leafed-out) trees being to trap traffic-emitted pollutants at the surface, but that PM(2.5) in street canyons is more often added by transport from outside the street, which can be attenuated by tree cover. Overall, these measurements emphasize that both traffic-emitted and regional sources are important factors that determine air quality in Rotterdam streets, making the effect of street trees different for different pollutants and different seasons.