Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global health issue, affecting more than 10% of the worldwide population. The current approach for formal diagnosis and prognostication of CKD typically relies on non-invasive serum and urine biomarkers such as serum creatinine and albuminuria. However, histological evidence of tubulointerstitial fibrosis is the 'gold standard' marker of the likelihood of disease progression. The development of novel biomedical technologies to evaluate exfoliated kidney cells from urine for non-invasive diagnosis and prognostication of CKD presents opportunities to avoid kidney biopsy for the purpose of prognostication. Efforts to apply these technologies more widely in clinical practice are encouraged, given their potential as a cost-effective approach, and no risk of post-biopsy complications such as bleeding, pain and hospitalization. The identification of biomarkers in exfoliated kidney cells from urine via western blotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunofluorescence techniques, measurement of cell and protein-specific messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)/micro-RNA and other techniques have been reported. Recent innovations such as multispectral autofluorescence imaging and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) have brought additional dimensions to the clinical application of exfoliated kidney cells from urine. In this review, we discuss the current evidence regarding the utility of exfoliated proximal tubule cells (PTC), podocytes, mesangial cells, extracellular vesicles and stem/progenitor cells as surrogate markers for the early diagnosis and prognostication of CKD. Future directions for development within this research area are also identified.