Abstract
Monitoring physiological indicators including heart rate (HR) is crucial for managing animal welfare across diverse settings, from precision livestock farming to wildlife conservation. HR is a reliable indicator of energy expenditure and stress, yet the invasive nature of HR loggers limits their application in wild and free-ranging species. This study explores whether overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA), measured with an external accelerometer, can serve as a less invasive proxy for HR. Using free-ranging cattle as a model species in Norway, we examined the relationship between ODBA and HR to assess how external accelerometry might indirectly reflect physiological states in settings that resemble wild conditions. Cattle provide an ideal model because they share some characteristics with wild herbivores, including exposure to diverse terrain and potential predation, whilst offering advantages for handling and sensor retrieval. Our findings showed that low ODBA values corresponded to static behaviours (e.g. standing, ruminating), where small movements caused HR spikes, whilst higher ODBA reflected dynamic activities (e.g. walking, foraging), with HR plateauing. This relationship suggests that ODBA can be used to approximate HR in environments where direct HR measurement is challenging. By using accelerometry to infer HR changes in free-ranging cattle, this study offers insights that could extend to wild species, offering a tool for conservationists to monitor and manage animal health and well-being less invasively.