Abstract
Females typically outlive males in animals, especially in species that provide long-term maternal care. However, life history theory predicts that investments in reproduction, such as lactation and offspring nursing, often shorten caretakers' longevity. Aiming to interpret this paradox, we selected the lactating jumping spider Toxeus magnus to investigate the effects of reproductive activities on longevity for two sexes. We found that: (1) although "milk" provisioning reduces female's longevity, mothers who cared for offspring (provisioned "milk" and nursing) lived the longest compared to virgins and those did not provide care; (2) copulation increased female's longevity but had no effects on males; and (3) the two sexes have comparable developmental duration, but the female adult's longevity was 2.1 times that of male's. This study suggests that the time requirement for offspring dispersal might act as a key selective force favoring females' adulthood extension, which ultimately generates the longer-lived females in maternal cared species.