Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the penetration and bonding performance of three restorative materials-high-viscosity glass ionomer cement (Riva Self Cure HV), resin-modified glass ionomer cement (Riva Light Cure) and a bioactive resin (Activa BioActive Restorative™)-in the healthy and carious dentine of permanent molars. Forty extracted human molars with sound or decayed dentine were restored following standardised protocols and subsequently divided into slices. So, twenty-four samples were used for each group (sound and carious dentine) for interface analysis using confocal laser scanning microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and another eight simples were used for each group (sound and carious dentine) for Vickers microhardness testing. Results showed that both glass ionomer cements achieved consistent chemical bonding in healthy dentine and demonstrated better interfacial adaptation compared to carious dentine, where partially demineralised areas showed weaker bonding. The bioactive resin exhibited good adhesion in sound dentine due to the adhesive system but showed poorer interaction in decayed dentine with signs of interfacial separation. Elemental analysis revealed similar compositions among materials, with no significant differences in material concentrations among the ionomers, while there were significant differences with the other materials. On the other hand, some variations were observed in the sulphur, fluoride and strontium content depending on dentine condition. Microhardness values were higher in healthy dentine than in carious dentine for all materials (p < 0.001), except the high-viscosity glass ionomer, which maintained stable hardness in both substrates (36.33 ± 6.23 VHN vs. 34.56 ± 4.31 VHN; p = 0.605). These findings highlight the relevance of material selection and dentine condition in minimally invasive restorative dentistry.