Abstract
BACKGROUND: There is increasing recognition that a morning or evening preference is associated with time of eating, metabolic health, and morbidity. However, few studies have examined the association of time of eating with mortality. OBJECTIVES: To examine the association of time of first recalled ingestive episode with the prospective risk of all-cause mortality. METHODS: We used mortality-linked data from the NHANES conducted in 1988-1994 and 1999-2014 (n = 34,609; age ≥ 40 years). The exposure was quartiles (Q1-Q4) of clock time of first eating episode self-reported in the baseline 24-hour dietary recall. The outcome was follow-up time from the date of NHANES examination to the date of death or end of the follow-up period (31 December 2015). We used proportional hazards regression methods to determine the independent association of time of first eating episode with relative hazard of all-cause mortality, with adjustments for multiple covariates and the complex survey design. Multiple linear regression methods were used to examine the associations of time of first eating episode with baseline cardiometabolic biomarkers and dietary attributes. RESULTS: In this national cohort, with a median age of ∼55 years (95% CI: 54.6-55.4 years) at baseline and a median follow-up of 8.3 years (IQR, 8.75 years), there were 10,303 deaths. The median times of first eating episodes in Q1-Q4 were 05:45, 07:00, 08:00, and 10:00, respectively. Covariate-adjusted relative hazards of mortality in Q1 to Q3 of the time of the first eating episode were 0.88 (95% CI: 0.81-0.96), 0.88 (95% CI: 0.81-0.95), 0.94 (95% CI: 0.87-1.02), with Q4 as the referent (P = 0.0008). Qualitative dietary attributes were inversely related with the time of the first eating episode; however, BMI and serum concentrations of glycemic biomarkers increased with later times of first eating episode (P ≤ 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Recall of an earlier time of the first eating episode by ≥40-year-old US participants was suggestive of a small relative survival advantage in this observational study.