Abstract
BACKGROUND: The stable isotope deuterium dose-to-mother (DTM) technique to estimate nonbreast milk water intake demonstrates that maternal self-report methods of infant feeding overestimate the true prevalence of exclusively breastfeeding practices. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine potential monosaccharide and oligosaccharide markers that distinguish between exclusively breastfed (EBF) versus nonexclusively breastfed (non-EBF) infants utilizing LC-MS-based methods. METHODS: Data for the analysis were collected as part of a larger, longitudinal study of 192 breastfed Indonesian infants aged 2 mo and followed up at 5 mo. Feces samples were collected from infants aged 2 mo (n = 188) and 5 mo (n = 184). EBF and non-EBF strata at each time point were determined via the DTM technique. Feces samples were analyzed to determine monosaccharide content using ultra-high-performance LC-triple quadrupole MS (UHPLC-QqQ MS). Relative abundances of fecal oligosaccharides were determined using nano-LC-Chip-quadrupole time-of-flight MS (nano-LC-Chip-Q-ToF MS). RESULTS: At age 2 mo, monosaccharide analysis showed the abundance of fructose and mannose were significantly higher (+377% and +388%, respectively) in non-EBF compared with EBF infants (P <0.0001). Fructose and mannose also showed good discrimination with areas under the curve (AUC) of 0.86 and 0.82, respectively. Oligosaccharide analysis showed that a 6-hexose (Hex6) isomer had good discrimination (AUC = 0.80) between EBF and non-EBF groups at 5 mo. CONCLUSION: Carbohydrate products, particularly fecal mono- and oligosaccharides, differed between EBF and non-EBF infants aged under 6 mo and can be used as potential biomarkers to distinguish EBF versus non-EBF feeding practices.