Abstract
IMPORTANCE: Research has shown that experiences of incarceration, probation, and parole are associated with worse health outcomes for incarcerated individuals and their families. OBJECTIVES: To quantify the proportion of patients in an urban primary care clinic with an individual or family history of incarceration, probation, and/or parole and to evaluate how correctional control is associated with subjective and objective health outcomes. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This cross-sectional, mixed-methods study used patient surveys and retrospective medical record review to assess the experience of correctional control among 200 English-speaking adult patients presenting for care at the Rhode Island Hospital Center for Primary Care between July 9, 2019, and January 10, 2020. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Patient surveys included closed and open-ended questions pertaining to personal or familial experiences of incarceration, probation, and parole, as well as health outcomes associated with these experiences. Medical record review abstracted key health indicators and health care use data. RESULTS: In this cross-sectional study of 200 adult patients (1 participant was removed from the full analytic sample owing to missing ethnicity data; 113 of 199 men [56.8%]; mean [SD] age, 51.2 [14.0] years) presenting for primary care, 78 of 199 (39.2%) had a history of incarceration, 32 of 199 (16.1%) were on probation or parole at the time of the study, and 92 of 199 (46.2%) reported having a family member with a history of incarceration. Of the 199 patients, 62 (31.2%) identified as non-Hispanic Black, 93 (46.7%) identified as non-Hispanic White, and 44 (22.1%) identified as belonging to another race (American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, or other nonspecified). Compared with participants without a history of correctional control, those with a personal history of incarceration were at greater odds of having an emergency department visit that did not result in hospitalization in models adjusted for age, sex, and race and ethnicity (odds ratio, 2.87; 95% CI, 1.47-5.75). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This cross-sectional study suggests that primary care clinicians should screen for correctional control as a prevalent social determinant of health.