Abstract
Human anatomy has traditionally been taught through cadaveric dissection and textbooks. Recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) visualization, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR) have introduced interactive approaches that may enhance spatial understanding. This systematic review evaluated the effectiveness of these virtual technologies compared with conventional anatomy teaching. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 27 randomized controlled trials were identified that compared 3D visualization, immersive VR, AR, mixed reality (MR), and simulator systems with traditional resources such as cadaveric dissection, atlases, and 2D images. Overall, virtual technologies achieved comparable or superior learning outcomes, with the most significant benefits observed in complex spatial topics, including neuroanatomy, cardiac anatomy, and the middle and inner ear. Immersive and interactive 3D tools significantly improved conceptual understanding and examination performance, while MR achieved results equivalent to cadaveric dissection with approximately 40% less teaching time. Students with lower visual-spatial ability benefited particularly from stereoscopic 3D displays. Across all modalities, virtual technologies consistently outperformed traditional methods in subjective outcomes, including motivation, engagement, and perceived spatial clarity. However, the included trials predominantly assessed knowledge-based and subjective learning outcomes and did not evaluate the hands-on practical skills uniquely supported by cadaveric dissection. These findings indicate that advanced virtual technologies represent an effective, efficient, and inclusive complement to traditional anatomy teaching and may play a key role in modernizing medical education. This review involved analysis of published data only and did not require ethical approval.