Abstract
Vitamin D3 is an important prohormone critical for maintaining calcium and phosphate homeostasis in the body and regulating drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3), the most abundant circulating metabolite of vitamin D3, is further transformed to the biologically active metabolite 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1α,25-(OH)2D3) by CYP27B1 in the kidney and extrarenal tissues, and to nonactive metabolites by other cytochrome P450 enzymes. In addition, 25OHD3 undergoes sulfation and glucuronidation in the liver, forming two major conjugative metabolites, 25OHD3-3-O-sulfate (25OHD3-S) and 25OHD3-3-O-glucuronide (25OHD3-G), both of which were detected in human blood and bile. Considering that the conjugates excreted into the bile may be circulated to and reabsorbed from the intestinal lumen, deconjugated to 25OHD3, and then converted to 1α,25-(OH)2D3, exerting local intestinal cellular effects, it is crucial to characterize enterohepatic transport mechanisms of 25OHD3-S and 25OHD3-G, and thereby understand and predict mechanisms of interindividual variability in mineral homeostasis. In the present study, with plasma membrane vesicle and cell-based transport studies, we showed that 25OHD3-G is a substrate of multidrug resistance proteins 2 and 3, OATP1B1, and OATP1B3, and that 25OHD3-S is probably a substrate of breast cancer resistance protein, OATP2B1, and OATP1B3. We also demonstrated sinusoidal and canalicular efflux of both conjugates using sandwich-cultured human hepatocytes. Given substantial expression of these transporters in liver hepatocytes and intestinal enterocytes, this study demonstrates for the first time that transporters could play important roles in the enterohepatic circulation of 25OHD3 conjugates, providing an alternative pathway of 25OHD3 delivery to the intestinal tract, which could be critical for vitamin D receptor-dependent gene regulation in enterocytes.