Abstract
A common form of Wolbachia-induced manipulation of host reproduction is Cytoplasmic Incompatibility (CI). In CI, Wolbachia modification of sperm results in pronounced defects in paternal chromosome condensation, replication, and segregation during the first mitotic division. Recent studies in D. simulans demonstrate that CI also induces independent and distinct later developmental defects resulting in high rates of mitotic errors during the mid-blastula transition and larval lethality. Here we show that in D. melanogaster, embryos derived from CI crosses experienced significant mitotic defects during gastrulation and increased larval lethality, both of which were eliminated in the progeny of Rescue crosses (both sexes infected). Examination of CI using females from 13 genetically distinct wild-type lines of the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) revealed significant variation in the strength of the CI-induced lethality. Early embryonic pre-hatching and late larval lethal phases were uncorrelated, suggesting distinct factors influence the extent of the two lethal phases. Additionally, 3rd instar larvae and adults derived from D. melanogaster CI crosses exhibited locomotor defects that were also eliminated in Rescue crosses. These studies support a model in which Wolbachia effects on the sperm chromatin produce delayed developmental and locomotor defects, suggesting the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms. Support for this idea comes from our finding that levels of the heritable chromatin mark H3K27me1 are significantly elevated in CI-derived embryos. We conclude that the full measure of CI strength should take into account pre- and post-hatching lethality as well as locomotor defects. Together our findings suggest that the strength of these CI-induced phenotypes is governed at least in part by epigenetics and the maternal genetic background.