Abstract
Membrane transporters play a crucial role in any cell. Identifying the substrates they translocate across membranes is important for many fields of research, such as metabolomics, pharmacology, and biotechnology. In this study, we leverage recent advances in deep learning, such as amino acid sequence embeddings with protein language models (pLMs), highly accurate 3D structure predictions with AlphaFold 2, and structure-encoding 3Di sequences from FoldSeek, for predicting substrates of membrane transporters. We test new deep learning features derived from both sequence and structure, and compare them to the previously best-performing protein encodings, which were made up of amino acid k-mer frequencies and evolutionary information from PSSMs. Furthermore, we compare the performance of these features either using a previously developed SVM model, or with a regularized feedforward neural network (FNN). When evaluating these models on sugar and amino acid carriers in A. thaliana, as well as on three types of ion channels in human, we found that both the DL-based features and the FNN model led to a better and more consistent classification performance compared to previous methods. Direct encodings of 3D structures with Foldseek, as well as structural embeddings with ProstT5, matched the performance of state-of-the-art amino acid sequence embeddings calculated with the ProtT5-XL model when used as input for the FNN classifier.