Abstract
Electroencephalographic neurofeedback (EEG-NF) has been proposed as a promising technique to modulate brain activity through real-time EEG-based feedback. Alpha neurofeedback in particular is believed to induce rapid self-regulation of brain rhythms, with applications in cognitive enhancement and clinical treatment. However, whether this modulation reflects specific volitional control or non-specific influences remains unresolved. In a preregistered, double-blind, sham-controlled study, we evaluated alpha upregulation in healthy participants receiving either genuine (n = 30) or sham (n = 30) EEG-NF during a single-session design. A third arm composed of a passive control group (n = 32) was also included to differentiate between non-specific influences related or not to the active engagement in EEG-NF. Throughout the session, alpha power increased robustly, yet independently of feedback veracity, engagement in self-regulation, or feedback update frequency. Parallel increases in theta and sensorimotor rhythms further suggest broadband non-specific modulation. Importantly, these results challenge the foundational assumption of EEG-NF: that feedback enables volitional EEG control. Instead, they point to spontaneous repetition-related processes as primary drivers, calling for a critical reassessment of neurofeedback efficacy and its underlying mechanisms.