Abstract
Background/Objectives: Accurate urinary bladder (UB) volume measurement is essential for diagnosing urinary retention, evaluating post-void residuals, and guiding catheterization decisions. Conventional 2D ultrasound and automated non-visual bladder scanners can be limited by operator variability and systematic errors. Three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound may improve accuracy and reproducibility, but data on handheld, semi-automated devices remain scarce. This study aimed to compare the accuracy, reproducibility, and feasibility of a handheld 3D ultrasound device versus conventional 2D ultrasound for UB volume estimation, using measured voided volume as the reference standard. Methods: Fifty-three healthy male volunteers (mean age 19.6 ± 2.0 years) underwent bladder volume assessment by two novice operators using both methods: 2D ultrasound (manual caliper-based) and handheld 3D ultrasound device (Butterfly iQ). Each operator performed two repeated measurements per method. True voided volume was recorded immediately after scanning. Accuracy was assessed using median differences, percentage error, and Bland-Altman analysis. Intra- and inter-operator reproducibility were evaluated with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results: Both methods significantly underestimated bladder volume (p < 0.001). The 3D method demonstrated higher accuracy, with a median percentage error of -11.2% to -12.0%, versus -27.6% to -36.7% for 2D. The mean bias ranged from -64.9 mL to -72.3 mL for 3D, compared to -137.4 mL to -191.6 mL for 2D. Intra-operator reproducibility was excellent for all methods (ICC > 0.96). Inter-operator agreement was higher for 3D (ICC = 0.977; bias 7.3 mL) than for 2D (ICC = 0.927; bias -54.2 mL). All scans were completed successfully; however, the 3D device occasionally faced technical errors in large bladder volumes. Conclusions: Handheld 3D ultrasound yielded greater accuracy and inter-operator consistency than conventional 2D ultrasound in healthy adults, with minimal operator input. Both methods underestimated true volume, indicating the need for clinical consideration when interpreting measurements. These findings support broader clinical adoption of handheld 3D ultrasound, particularly in settings with variable sonographic expertise, while highlighting the need for validation in elderly and pathological populations.