Abstract
Glacier changes in the Karakoram Mountain (KM) region were analyzed using Landsat images from 2000 to 2021. Clean ice boundaries were mapped using supervised classification, while debris-covered ice was identified by integrating surface temperature, temperature vegetation dryness index (TVDI), and slope (ASTER DEM data). Extraction accuracy was 98% for clean ice and 67%-71% for debris-covered ice. In 2021, debris-covered ice represented about 5% of the total glacier area. Glacier area declined from 26.59 × 10(3) km(2) (2000) to 20.66 × 10(3) km(2) (2021), except for Amu Darya Basin (+1%). Tarim Basin and Indus Basin retreated by 14% and 25%, respectively. Rapid glacier loss in the Indus Basin may sharply decrease future river flow, underlining the need for accurate debris-covered glacier mapping for water resource assessment.