Abstract
When cosmic rays-high-energy particles from outer space-encounter the Earth's atmosphere, they produce particles called neutrinos. To detect them, physicists go underground inside deep mines where the overlying rock can filter out the cosmic-ray background radiation. I examine how the first such detection of neutrinos in 1965 by an international team of physicists at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) in India-a gold mine where the British began mining in 1880-was made possible by the invisible labor of lowered-caste, or Dalit, miners. By studying the underground, this paper contributes to recent attention to verticality in the history of science, while moving away from the dominant approach to spatial studies of sites of science, the lab-field framework, and instead examining the social, political, and economic conditions that made KGF, with its depth, possible as a site for physics. Using labor histories of KGF and archival material about the experiments, I argue that the mines became nearly three kilometers deep only because of a regime of racialized labor in which Dalit miners worked in difficult and dangerous conditions for less than subsistence-level wages. I also show how the experiments depended on this invisible labor that ran the mines.