Abstract
A hierarchical structure of isomorphic arithmetics is defined by a bijection gR:R→R. It entails a hierarchy of probabilistic models, with probabilities pk=gk(p), where g is the restriction of gR to the interval [0,1], gk is the kth iterate of g, and k is an arbitrary integer (positive, negative, or zero; g0(x)=x). The relation between p and gk(p), k>0, is analogous to the one between probability and neural activation function. For k≪-1, gk(p) is essentially white noise (all processes are equally probable). The choice of k=0 is physically as arbitrary as the choice of origin of a line in space, hence what we regard as experimental binary probabilities, pexp, can be given by any k, pexp=gk(p). Quantum binary probabilities are defined by g(p)=sin2π2p. With this concrete form of g, one finds that any two neighboring levels of the hierarchy are related to each other in a quantum-subquantum relation. In this sense, any model in the hierarchy is probabilistically quantum in appropriate arithmetic and calculus. And the other way around: any model is subquantum in appropriate arithmetic and calculus. Probabilities involving more than two events are constructed by means of trees of binary conditional probabilities. We discuss from this perspective singlet-state probabilities and Bell inequalities. We find that singlet state probabilities involve simultaneously three levels of the hierarchy: quantum, hidden, and macroscopic. As a by-product of the analysis, we discover a new (arithmetic) interpretation of the Fubini-Study geodesic distance.