Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that caused the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, has a spike glycoprotein that is involved in recognizing and fusing to host cell receptors, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), neuropilin-1 (NRP1), and AXL tyrosine-protein kinase. Since the major spike protein receptor is ACE2, an enzyme that regulates angiotensin II (1-8), this study tested the hypothesis that angiotensin II (1-8) influences the binding of the spike protein to its receptors. While angiotensin II (1-8) did not influence spike-ACE2 binding, we found that it significantly enhances spike-AXL binding. Our experiments showed that longer lengths of angiotensin, such as angiotensin I (1-10), did not significantly affect spike-AXL binding. In contrast, shorter lengths of angiotensin peptides, in particular, angiotensin IV (3-8), strongly increased spike-AXL binding. Angiotensin IV (3-8) also enhanced spike protein binding to ACE2 and NRP1. The discovery of the enhancing effects of angiotensin peptides on spike-host cell receptor binding may suggest that these peptides could be pharmacological targets to treat COVID-19 and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC), which is also known as long COVID.