Abstract
Copper-based fungicides have been used to control various plant diseases for more than one hundred years and play very important roles in agriculture. Accumulation of copper in freshwater and environment pose severe threats to human health and the environment. The current study evaluated the developmental and behavioral toxicity of PEG@Cu NCs (copper nanoclusters), Kocide(®) 3000 (copper hydroxide), and Cu(CH(3)COO)(2) (copper acetate) to zebrafish in early-life stages. The developmental toxicity was evaluated according to the parameters of mortality, hatching rate, autonomous movement and heartbeat of embryos, and body length of larvae. The 9 dpf (days postfertilization)-LC(50) (50% lethal concentration) of embryonic mortality was 0.077, 0.174 or 0.088 mg/L, and the 9 dpf-EC(50) (effective concentration of 50% embryos hatching) of hatching rate was 0.079 mg/L, 0.21 mg/L and 0.092 mg/L when the embryos were exposed to PEG@Cu NCs, Kocide(®) 3000 or Cu(CH(3)COO)(2), respectively. Kocide(®) 3000 and Cu(CH(3)COO)(2) obviously decreased the spontaneous movements, while PEG@Cu NCs had no adverse effects on that of embryos. The reduced heartbeat can return to normal after exposure to PEG@Cu NCs for 96 h, while it cannot recover from Kocide(®) 3000. In addition, Kocide(®) 3000 (≥0.2 mg/L), PEG@Cu NCs and Cu(CH(3)COO)(2) with 0.05 mg/L or higher concentration exhibited obvious behavioral toxicity to zebrafish larvae according to the parameters of movement distance, average velocity, absolute sinuosity, absolute turn angle and absolute angular velocity.