Abstract
Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a heterogeneous syndrome with various comorbidities, multiple cardiac and extracardiac pathophysiologic abnormalities, and diverse phenotypic presentations. Since HFpEF is a heterogeneous disease with different phenotypes, individualized treatment is required. HFpEF with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) represents a specific phenotype of HFpEF, with about 45%-50% of HFpEF patients suffering from T2DM. Systemic inflammation associated with dysregulated glucose metabolism is a critical pathological mechanism of HFpEF with T2DM, which is intimately related to the expansion and dysfunction (inflammation and hypermetabolic activity) of epicardial adipose tissue (EAT). EAT is well established as a very active endocrine organ that can regulate the pathophysiological processes of HFpEF with T2DM through the paracrine and endocrine mechanisms. Therefore, suppressing abnormal EAT expansion may be a promising therapeutic strategy for HFpEF with T2DM. Although there is no treatment specifically for EAT, lifestyle management, bariatric surgery, and some pharmaceutical interventions (anti-cytokine drugs, statins, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors, metformin, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and especially sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors) have been shown to attenuate the inflammatory response or expansion of EAT. Importantly, these treatments may be beneficial in improving the clinical symptoms or prognosis of patients with HFpEF. Accordingly, well-designed randomized controlled trials are needed to validate the efficacy of current therapies. In addition, more novel and effective therapies targeting EAT are needed in the future.