Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Goals of care (GOC) discussions are an increasingly used quality metric in serious illness care and research. Wide variation in documentation practices within the Electronic Health Record (EHR) presents challenges for reliable measurement of GOC discussions. Novel natural language processing approaches are needed to capture GOC discussions documented in real-world samples of seriously ill hospitalized patients' EHR notes, a corpus with a very low event prevalence. METHODS: To automatically detect sentences documenting GOC discussions outside of dedicated GOC note types, we proposed an ensemble of classifiers aggregating the predictions of rule-based, feature-based, and three transformers-based classifiers. We trained our classifier on 600 manually annotated EHR notes among patients with serious illnesses. Our corpus exhibited an extremely imbalanced ratio between sentences discussing GOC and sentences that do not. This ratio challenges standard supervision methods to train a classifier. Therefore, we trained our classifier with active learning. RESULTS: Using active learning, we reduced the annotation cost to fine-tune our ensemble by 70% while improving its performance in our test set of 176 EHR notes, with 0.557 F1-score for sentence classification and 0.629 for note classification. CONCLUSION: When classifying notes, with a true positive rate of 72% (13/18) and false positive rate of 8% (13/158), our performance may be sufficient for deploying our classifier in the EHR to facilitate bedside clinicians' access to GOC conversations documented outside of dedicated notes types, without overburdening clinicians with false positives. Improvements are needed before using it to enrich trial populations or as an outcome measure.