Abstract
Polyanion-type phosphate materials, such as M(3) V(2) (PO(4) )(3) (M = Li/Na/K), are promising as insertion-type negative electrodes for monovalent-ion batteries including Li/Na/K-ion batteries (lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), and potassium-ion batteries (PIBs)) with fast charging/discharging and distinct redox peaks. However, it remains a great challenge to understand the reaction mechanism of materials upon monovalent-ion insertion. Here, triclinic Mg(3) V(4) (PO(4) )(6) /carbon composite (MgVP/C) with high thermal stability is synthesized via ball-milling and carbon-thermal reduction method and applied as a pseudocapacitive negative electrode in LIBs, SIBs, and PIBs. In operando and ex situ studies demonstrate the guest ion-dependent reaction mechanisms of MgVP/C upon monovalent-ion storage due to different sizes. MgVP/C undergoes an indirect conversion reaction to form Mg(0) , V(0) , and Li(3) PO(4) in LIBs, while in SIBs/PIBs the material only experiences a solid solution with the reduction of V(3+) to V(2+) . Moreover, in LIBs, MgVP/C delivers initial lithiation/delithiation capacities of 961/607 mAh g(-1) (30/19 Li(+) ions) for the first cycle, despite its low initial Coulombic efficiency, fast capacity decay for the first 200 cycles, and limited reversible insertion/deinsertion of 2 Na(+) /K(+) ions in SIBs/PIBs. This work reveals a new pseudocapacitive material and provides an advanced understanding of polyanion phosphate negative material for monovalent-ion batteries with guest ion-dependent energy storage mechanisms.