Abstract
BACKGROUND: Vaccines prevent infections and could subsequently reduce antimicrobial use. A 1-week mass vaccination campaign was done with Typbar-TCV (Bharat Biotech, Hyderabad, India) between Feb 25 and March 4, 2019. We investigated whether this typhoid conjugate vaccine campaign could affect antimicrobial prescribing in children presenting to primary care in Harare, Zimbabwe. METHODS: In this mixed methods study, data for acute paediatric outpatient consultations between Jan 1, 2018, and March 31, 2020, were collected from five clinics in Harare. Interrupted time series analysis was done to compare prescription data before and after the campaign. To contextualise findings, qualitative data were collected between April 20, 2021, and July 20, 2022, comprising ethnographic research (ie, workshops, surveys, observations, and interviews) in 14 clinics. Ethnographic data were used for thematic analysis. The primary outcome was monthly antimicrobial prescriptions in children aged 6 months to 15 years, normalised by the number of trauma events in all age groups. FINDINGS: In the data collection period, 27 107 paediatric consultations were recorded. 17 951 (66·2%) of 27 107 children were prescribed antimicrobials. Despite the perceived reduction in typhoid cases and a decreasing trend in the prescription of antimicrobials commonly used to treat typhoid (ie, ciprofloxacin and azithromycin), mass vaccination with Typbar-TCV did not affect the total rate of antimicrobials (adjusted rate ratio, 1·20, 95% CI 0·70-2·05, p=0·51) or the rate of typhoid antimicrobials prescribed (0·93, 0·44-1·96, p=0·85). Unsafe water sources and insufficient diagnostic services were reported to contribute to the continued disease burden and antimicrobial prescription. INTERPRETATION: Non-specific febrile illness caused by confirmed or suspected typhoid is a common cause of antimicrobial use in endemic areas. Although effective in preventing typhoid fever, we were unable to identify any effect of Typbar-TCV on antimicrobial prescribing. Ethnographic research showed the effect of contextual factors on antimicrobial prescribing, including concerns regarding safe water access, appropriate sewage disposal, health-care and diagnostic availability. To realise effects beyond disease burden reduction, holistic approaches addressing these concerns are needed so that the value of vaccines mitigating the effects of antimicrobial use as a driver of antimicrobial resistance is fully achieved. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust. TRANSLATION: For the Shona translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.