Abstract
This online survey of unvaccinated people living in Japan aimed to identify the reasons for declining vaccination and to develop effective countermeasures. We conducted a hierarchical class analysis to classify participants, examine factors influencing their classification, and provide the information they needed about coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and trusted sources of COVID-19 information for each group. A total of 262 participants were classified into three groups: Group 1 with no specific reason (28 participants, 10.69%); Group 2 with clear concerns about trust in the vaccine (85 participants, 32.44%), and Group 3 with attitudinal barriers, such as distrust of the vaccine and complacency towards COVID-19, and structural barriers, such as vaccination appointments (149 participants, 56.87%). For each group, females tended to be classified in Group 2 more than Group 1 (Odds ratio (OR) [95% confidential intervals (95%CI)] = 1.64 (0.63 to 2.66), p = 0.001) and in Group 3 more than Group 1 (OR [95%CI] = 1.16 (0.19 to 2.12), p = 0.019). The information that the participants wanted to know about COVID-19 was different among each group (Safety: p < 0.001, Efficacy: p < 0.001, Genetic effects: p < 0.001). Those who did not receive the COVID-19 vaccine also had lower influenza vaccination coverage (8.02%). Additionally, 38 participants (14.50%) were subject to social disadvantages because they had not received the COVID-19 vaccine. Countermeasures should be carefully tailored according to the target population, reasons for hesitancy, and specific context. The findings of this study may help develop individualized countermeasures to address vaccine hesitancy.