Abstract
Mitochondrial membranes and their microenvironments directly influence and reflect cellular metabolic states but are difficult to probe on site in live cells. Here, we demonstrate a strategy, showing how the widely used mitochondrial membrane localization fluorophore 10-nonyl acridine orange (NAO) can be transformed into a multifunctional probe of membrane microenvironments by monitoring its blinking kinetics. By transient state (TRAST) studies of NAO in small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), together with computational simulations, we found that NAO exhibits prominent reversible singlet-triplet state transitions and can act as a light-induced Lewis acid forming a red-emissive doublet radical. The resulting blinking kinetics are highly environment-sensitive, specifically reflecting local membrane oxygen concentrations, redox conditions, membrane charge, fluidity, and lipid compositions. Here, not only cardiolipin concentration but also the cardiolipin acyl chain composition was found to strongly influence the NAO blinking kinetics. The blinking kinetics also reflect hydroxyl ion-dependent transitions to and from the fluorophore doublet radical, closely coupled to the proton-transfer events in the membranes, local pH, and two- and three-dimensional buffering properties on and above the membranes. Following the SUV studies, we show by TRAST imaging that the fluorescence blinking properties of NAO can be imaged in live cells in a spatially resolved manner. Generally, the demonstrated blinking imaging strategy can transform existing fluorophore markers into multiparametric sensors reflecting conditions of large biological relevance, which are difficult to retrieve by other means. This opens additional possibilities for fundamental membrane studies in lipid vesicles and live cells.