Abstract
Malate dehydrogenase (MDH: EC:1.1.1.37) catalyzes a key NAD (+) -dependent redox reaction integral to cellular metabolism. In humans, the cytosolic (hMDH1) and mitochondrial (hMDH2) isoforms operate in distinct compartments, suggesting potential differences in regulation. Here, we present a comparative analysis of hMDH1 and hMDH2 under physiologically relevant conditions, integrating enzymatic assays, ligand binding studies, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and molecular modeling. Our findings reveal that hMDH2 activity is inhibited by α-ketoglutarate, glutamate, NAD (+) , ATP, and citrate at concentrations consistent with mitochondrial metabolic states characterized by elevated amino acid catabolism or redox stress. Conversely, hMDH1 exhibits minimal impact by these metabolites, with only modest inhibition observed in the presence of ATP and ADP. SAXS analyses confirm that both isoforms maintain stable dimeric structures upon ligand binding, indicating that regulation is not mediated by global conformational changes. Structural modeling and normal mode analyses identify increased flexibility in hMDH1, particularly within the active site loop, thumb loop, and a partially disordered C-terminal helix. In contrast, hMDH2 displays a more rigid architecture and a more electropositive active site environment, correlating with its heightened sensitivity to anionic metabolites. Fluorescence quenching experiments further support these distinctions, demonstrating stronger binding affinities for nucleotide-based ligands in hMDH2 compared to hMDH1. Collectively, these results suggest that isoform-specific regulation of human MDH arises from differences in local structural dynamics and electrostatics, rather than large-scale structural rearrangements. hMDH2 appears adapted to integrate mitochondrial metabolic signals, modulating malate oxidation in response to cellular conditions, while hMDH1 maintains consistent cytosolic function across diverse metabolic states.