Abstract
Microplastic pollution, global warming, and invasive species are known threats to marine biota, but the impact of their simultaneous exposure is still not well understood. This study investigated whether the toxic effects posed by the invasive red seaweed Asparagopsis armata exudate (2%) to the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis are amplified by a 96 h exposure to increased temperature (24 °C) and polyethylene microplastics (PE-MPs, 1 mg/L). Biochemical (neurotoxicity, energy metabolism, oxidative stress, and damage) and physiological (byssal thread production) responses were evaluated. The number of produced byssus greatly decreased under concomitant exposure to all stressors. The antioxidant defences were depleted in the gills of mussels exposed to temperature rises and PE-MPs, regardless of exudate exposure, preventing oxidative damage. Moreover, the heat shock protein content tended to decrease in all treatments relative to the control. The increased total glutathione in the mussels' digestive gland exposed to 24 °C, exudate, and PE-MPs avoided oxidative damage. Neurotoxicity was observed in the same treatment. In contrast, the energy metabolism remained unaltered. In conclusion, depending on the endpoint, simultaneous exposure to A. armata exudate, PE-MPs, and warming does not necessarily mean an amplification of their single effects. Studies focusing on the impact of multiple stressors are imperative to better understand the underlying mechanisms of this chronic exposure.