Abstract
Valorisation of industrial low-value waste residues was preconized. Hence, carbon dots (C-dots) were synthesized from wastewaters of the cork industry-an abundant and affordable, but environmentally-problematic industrial effluent. The carbon nanomaterials were structurally and morphologically characterised, and their photophysical properties were analysed by an ensemble of spectroscopy techniques. Afterwards, they were successfully applied as highly-sensitive fluorescence probes for the direct detection of haemproteins. Haemoglobin, cytochrome c and myoglobin were selected as specific targets owing to their relevant roles in living organisms, wherein their deficiencies or surpluses are associated with several medical conditions. For all of them, remarkable responses were achieved, allowing their detection at nanomolar levels. Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence, ground-state UV-Vis absorption and electronic circular dichroism techniques were used to investigate the probable mechanisms behind the fluorescence turn-off of C-dots. Extensive experimental evidence points to a static quenching mechanism. Likewise, resonance energy transfer and collisional quenching have been discarded as excited-state deactivating mechanisms. It was additionally found that an oxidative, photoinduced electron transfer occurs for cytochrome c, the most electron-deficient protein. Besides, C-dots prepared from citric acid/ethylenediamine were comparatively assayed for protein detection and the differences between the two types of nanomaterials highlighted.