Abstract
The MTS cell viability test was used to screen a mini library of natural and synthetic 1,4-naphthoquinone derivatives (1,4-NQs) from marine sources. This screening identified two highly effective compounds, U-443 and U-573, which showed potential in protecting Neuro-2a neuroblastoma cells from the toxic effects of rotenone in an in vitro model of neurotoxicity. The selected 1,4-NQs demonstrated the capability to reduce oxidative stress by decreasing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) in Neuro-2a neuroblastoma cells and RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and displayed significant antioxidant properties in mouse brain homogenate. Normal mitochondrial function was restored and the mitochondrial membrane potential was also regained by 1,4-NQs after exposure to neurotoxins. Furthermore, at low concentrations, these compounds were found to significantly reduce levels of proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-1β and notably inhibit the activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The results of docking studies showed that the 1,4-NQs were bound to the active site of COX-2, analogically to a known inhibitor of this enzyme, SC-558. Both substances significantly improved the behavioral changes in female CD1 mice with rotenone-induced early stage of Parkinson's disease (PD) in vivo. It is proposed that the 1,4-NQs, U-443 and U-573, can protect neurons and microglia through their potent anti-ROS and anti-inflammatory activities.