Abstract
Sequencing technologies now provide unprecedented access to genomic information in archival formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples. However, little is known about artifacts induced during formalin fixation, which could bias results. Here we evaluated global changes in RNA-sequencing profiles between matched frozen and FFPE samples. RNA-sequencing was performed on liver samples collected from mice treated with a reference chemical (phenobarbital) or vehicle control for 7 days. Each sample was divided into four parts: (1) fresh-frozen, (2) direct-fixed in formalin for 18 h, (3) frozen then formalin-fixed, and (4) frozen then ethanol-fixed and paraffin-embedded (n = 6/group/condition). Direct fixation resulted in 2,946 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) vs. fresh-frozen, 98% of which were down-regulated. Freezing prior to formalin fixation had ≥ 95% fewer DEGs vs. direct fixation, indicating that most formalin-derived transcriptional effects in the liver occurred during fixation. This finding was supported by retrospective studies of paired frozen and FFPE samples, which identified consistent enrichment in oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and transcription initiation pathways with direct fixation. Notably, direct formalin fixation in the parent study did not significantly impact response profiles resulting from chemical exposure. These results advance our understanding of FFPE samples as a resource for genomic research.