Abstract
Metformin is one of the most prescribed antidiabetic agents worldwide and is also considered for other therapeutic applications including cancer and endocrine disorders. It is largely unmetabolized by human enzymes and its presence in the environment has raised concern, with reported toxic effects on aquatic life and potentially also on humans. We report on the isolation and characterisation of strain MD1, an aerobic methylotrophic bacterium growing with metformin as its sole carbon, nitrogen and energy source. Strain MD1 degrades metformin into dimethylamine used for growth, and guanylurea as a side-product. Sequence analysis of its fully assembled genome showed its affiliation to Aminobacter niigataensis. Differential proteomics and transcriptomics, as well as mini-transposon mutagenesis of the strain, point to genes and proteins essential for growth with metformin and potentially associated with hydrolytic C-N cleavage of metformin or with cellular transport of metformin and guanylurea. The obtained results suggest the recent evolution of the growth-supporting capacity of strain MD1 to degrade metformin. Our results identify candidate proteins of the enzymatic system for metformin transformation in strain MD1 and will inform future research on the fate of metformin and its degradation products in the environment and in humans.