Abstract
Venom production has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Venomous shrews produce venom in their submandibular salivary glands and use it for food acquisition. Only a few toxins have been identified in shrew venoms thus far, and their modes of action require investigation. The biological and molecular processes relating to venom production and gland functioning also remain unknown. To address this gap, we investigated protein content in extracts from venom glands of two shrew species, Neomys fodiens and Sorex araneus, and interpreted their biological functions. Applying a proteomic approach coupled with Gene Ontology enrichment analysis, we identified 313 and 187 putative proteins in venom glands of N. fodiens and S. araneus, respectively. A search of the UniProt database revealed that most of the proteins found in both shrew species were involved in metabolic processes and stress response, while GO enrichment analysis revealed more stress-related proteins in the glands of S. araneus. Molecules that regulate molecule synthesis, cell cycles, and cell divisions are necessary to enable venom regeneration and ensure its effectiveness in predation and food hoarding. The presence of proteins involved in stress response may be the result of shrews' high metabolic rate and the costs of venom replenishment. Some proteins are likely to promote toxin spreading during envenomation and, due to their proteolytic action, reinforce venom toxicity. Finally, finding numerous proteins involved in immune response suggests a potential role of shrew venom gland secretions in protection against pathogens. These findings open up new perspectives for studying biological functions of molecules from shrew venom glands and extend our knowledge on the functioning of eulipotyphlan venom systems. Because the majority of existing and putative venomous mammals use oral venom systems to inject venom into target species, the methods presented here provide a promising avenue for confirming or discovering new taxa of venomous mammals.