Abstract
Macrophages and microglia are highly versatile cells that can be polarized into M1 and M2 phenotypes in response to diverse environmental stimuli, thus exhibiting different biological functions. In the central nervous system, activated resident macrophages and microglial cells trigger the production of proinflammatory mediators that contribute to neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders. Therefore, modulating the activation of macrophages and microglia by optimizing the inflammatory environment is beneficial for disease management. Several naturally occurring compounds have been reported to have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Zerumbone is a phytochemical sesquiterpenoid and also a cyclic ketone isolated from Zingiber zerumbet Smith. In this study, we found that zerumbone effectively reduced the expression of lipocalin-2 in macrophages and microglial cell lines. Lipocalin-2, also known as neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), has been characterized as an adipokine/cytokine implicated in inflammation. Moreover, supplement with zerumbone inhibited reactive oxygen species production. Phagocytic activity was decreased following the zerumbone supplement. In addition, the zerumbone supplement remarkably reduced the production of M1-polarization-associated chemokines CXC10 and CCL-2, as well as M1-polarization-associated cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α. Furthermore, the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 and the production of NO were attenuated in macrophages and microglial cells supplemented with zerumbone. Notably, we discovered that zerumbone effectively promoted the production of the endogenous antioxidants heme oxygenase-1, glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit, glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit, and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1 and remarkably enhanced IL-10, a marker of M2 macrophage polarization. Endogenous antioxidant production and M2 macrophage polarization were increased through activation of the AMPK/Akt and Akt/GSK3 signaling pathways. In summary, this study demonstrated the protective role of zerumbone in maintaining M1 and M2 polarization homeostasis by decreasing inflammatory responses and enhancing the production of endogenous antioxidants in both macrophages and microglia cells. This study suggests that zerumbone can be used as a potential therapeutic drug for the supplement of neuroinflammatory diseases.