Determination of the nanoparticle- and cell-specific toxicological mechanisms in 3D liver spheroids using scRNAseq analysis.

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are commonly used in consumer products, allowing exposure to target organs such as the lung, liver, and skin that could lead to adverse health effects in humans. To better reflect on toxicological effects in liver cells, it is important to consider the contribution of hepatocyte morphology, function, and intercellular interactions in a dynamic 3D microenvironment. Herein, we used a 3D liver spheroid model containing hepatocyte and Kupffer cells (KCs) to study the effects of three different material compositions, namely vanadium pentoxide (V(2)O(5)), titanium dioxide (TiO(2)), or graphene oxide (GO). Additionally, we used single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) to determine the nanoparticle (NP) and cell-specific toxicological responses. A general finding was that hepatocytes exhibit more variation in gene expression and adaptation of signaling pathways than KCs. TNF-α production tied to the NF-κB pathway was a commonly affected pathway by all NPs while impacts on the metabolic function of hepatocytes were unique to V(2)O(5). V(2)O(5) NPs also showed the largest number of differentially expressed genes in both cell types, many of which are related to pro-inflammatory and apoptotic response pathways. There was also evidence of mitochondrial ROS generation and caspase-1 activation after GO and V(2)O(5) treatment, in association with cytokine production. All considered, this study provides insight into the impact of nanoparticles on gene responses in key liver cell types, providing us with a scRNAseq platform that can be used for high-content screening of nanomaterial impact on the liver, for use in biosafety and biomedical applications.