Abstract
Birds have evolved seasonal adaptations in multiple aspects of the innate and adaptive immune systems. Seasonal immunological adaptations are crucial for survival in harsh environmental conditions and in response to increased prevalence of acute and chronic diseases. Similar to other vertebrates, birds exhibit remarkable plasticity in cytokine production, chemotaxis, phagocytosis and inflammation across the year. In this review, we provide a comparative perspective on seasonal rhythms in bird immune function. We describe advances in our understanding of annual changes in immune cells and responses to innate and adaptive immune challenges. Then, the role of glucocorticoids, sex steroids, thyroid hormones (THs) and melatonin to act as immunomodulators is described. We then discuss the impact of a major and emerging disease, the high pathogenicity avian influenza, as one of the most critical seasonal diseases with significant implications for poultry and wild bird populations. The review identifies the need to enhance our knowledge of annual rhythms in immune cells and tissues in birds, at molecular, cellular and hormonal levels across the year. Moreover, there is a significant absence of information on sex-specific seasonal variation in immune function. Understanding seasonal immune system dynamics will aid in addressing the negative impacts of pathogenic diseases, minimize global economic losses and aid conservation efforts.This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Circadian rhythms in infection and immunity'.