Abstract
Mountain ranges are complex socio-ecological systems recognised as the "undervalued ecological backbone" of Europe as they provided essential ecosystem services and goods. However, we lack a deep understanding on their vulnerability to both environmental and social drivers. We carried out a stakeholder-based study assessing the vulnerability of 23 land-use systems supporting a wide range of value chains in European mountain regions. In total, 513 stakeholders participated in the evaluation of vulnerability, providing estimates for importance, exposure and sensitivity to the drivers and an assessment of 160 adaptation mechanisms. Vulnerability was calculated per region, factoring the impact of each driver and the potential reduction by adaptation mechanisms. The analysis highlighted the dominance of climate-related drivers, followed by demographic changes. Most of the adaptation mechanisms demonstrated strong social and environmental feasibility but moderate economic feasibility. Many mechanisms have shown limited implementation but offer valuable insights to reduce vulnerability in European mountain regions.