Abstract
Smoking, which is highly prevalent in HIV-infected populations, has been shown to exacerbate HIV replication, in part via the cytochrome P450 (CYP)-induced oxidative stress pathway. Recently, we have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs), derived from tobacco- and/or HIV-exposed macrophages, alter HIV replication in macrophages by cell-cell interactions. We hypothesize that cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) and/or HIV-exposed macrophage-derived EVs carry relatively high levels of pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory cargos and/or low levels of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory cargos, which are key mediators for HIV pathogenesis. Therefore, in this study, we investigated differential packaging of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and pro- and anti-oxidant contents in EVs after CSC exposure to myeloid cells (uninfected U937 and HIV-infected U1 cells). Our results showed that relatively long to short exposures with CSC increased the expression of cytokines in EVs isolated from HIV-infected U1 macrophages. Importantly, pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-6, were highly packaged in EVs isolated from HIV-infected U1 macrophages upon both long and short-term CSC exposures. In general, anti-inflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-10, had a lower packaging in EVs, while packaging of chemokines was mostly increased in EVs upon CSC exposure in both HIV-infected U1 and uninfected U937 macrophages. Moreover, we observed higher expression of CYPs (1A1 and 1B1) and lower expression of antioxidant enzymes (SOD-1 and catalase) in EVs from HIV-infected U1 macrophages than in uninfected U937 macrophages. Together, they are expected to increase oxidative stress factors in EVs derived from HIV-infected U1 cells. Taken together, our results suggest packaging of increased level of oxidative stress and inflammatory elements in the EVs upon exposure to tobacco constituents and/or HIV to myeloid cells, which would ultimately enhance HIV replication in macrophages via cell-cell interactions.